Inscriptions and ancient manuscripts also have made an important contribution to biblical study. In fact, today's archaeology work is increasingly concerned with the text of the Sacred Scripture/Holy Bible. Intensive study of more than 3,000 New Testament Greek manuscripts dating from the second century A.D. and subsequent years has shown that the New Testament text has been preserved remarkably from that time. Not one doctrine has been perverted due to major errors in transmission.
The science of papyrology developed after large quantities of "Papyri" or ancient writing materials, were discovered in Egypt around the turn of the century. The papyri, written on paper made from the papyrus reed of Egypt, included a wide variety of topics presented in several languages. More than 70 papyri containing portions of the New Testament have been found. These fragments help to confirm the texts of the longer manuscripts dating to the fourth century A.D. and following. Since many of the papyri date to the first three centuries after Christ, the impact of papyrology upon biblical studies has been significant. These discoveries make it possible to establish the grammar of the period and, thus, to date the composition of New Testament books to the first century A.D.
The mass of papyri also demonstrated that New Testament Greek was not invented by New Testament writers. Instead, it was the common language generally used during the first century of the Christian era. Moreover, the papyri has shown that the New Testament contained good grammar, judged by the first century standards.
The search for buildings and places associated with the ministry of Jesus has taken place for centuries. A synagogue was unearthed in Capernaum, although it hardly can be the one in which Jesus taught. - Mark 1:21 - It may well be the successor of the synagogue Jesus knew. However, archaeologists think they may have discovered Peter's [Simon Peter] house at the same site. - Matt. 8:14 - Graffiti on the plastered wall of this second century house clearly links it with Peter. Atop Mount Gerizim, excavations have uncovered the foundations of the Samaritan Temple, and tradition has assigned site for the birth and crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Many important archaeological discoveries of this century have contributed to Sacred Scripture/Holy Bible knowledge. Following are descriptions of five of these projects, with an analysis of their contribution.
In 1901, a slab of black marble over seven feet tall and six feet wide, containing over 300 paragraphs of legal inscriptions, was discovered at Susa (Shushan) in ancient Elam. Engraved on the large rock were legal provisions dealing with the social, domestic, and moral life of the ancient Babylonians people of king Hammurabi's time (about 1792-1750 B.C.) The Code furnishes important background material for comparison with the other ancient bodies of law, particularly the law of the Pentateuch.
The fact that Hammurabi's Code is older by three centuries than the laws of Moses has ruined some of the theories of critics and has given rise to others. A discovery of this sort illustrates how archaeology roots out views that earlier placed the origin of many of the laws attributed to Moses at a much later time. The discovery of Hammurabi's laws indicate that the Law of Moses is neither borrowed from, nor dependent upon, the Babylonian, but that it is divinely given as it claims to be.
The resemblances between the Mosaic laws and the Code of Hammurabi are clearly due to the similarity of the general intellectual and cultural heritage of the Hebrews and the Babylonians at that ancient time. The striking differences, however, demonstrate that there is no direct borrowing and that the Mosaic law - although later by three centuries - is in no way dependent upon the Babylonians.
The two laws are radically different in their origins and morality. The Babylonian law are alleged to have been received by Hammurabi from the sun god, Shamash. Moses received his laws directly from God. (Creator of the heaven and earth) Hammurabi's laws list at least ten varieties of bodily mutilation prescribed for various offenses. For example, if a physician performed an operation that was unsuccessful, his hand was to be cut off.
By contrast, in the Mosaic legislation, only one instance of mutilation occurs, where a wife's hand is to be severed. - Deut. 25:11-12 - Also in the Hebrew laws a greater value is placed upon human life. A stricter regard for the honor of womanhood is evident and masters are ordered to treat their slaves more humanely.
Ur was an important city of ancient Babylonia situated on the Euphrates River in lower Mesopotamia, or present day Iraq. But the glory of the city was suddenly destroyed about 1960 B.C. Foreigners stormed down from the surrounding hills, captured the reigning king, Ibbi-Sin, and reduced the city lay buried in oblivion until it was excavated in modern times by archaeologists.
Abraham lived in the city of Ur at the height of its splendor. The city was a center of religion and industry. The Babylonians worshiped many gods, but the moon god Sin was supreme. Accordingly, Ur was a theocracy centered in worship of the moon deity. Abraham's father, Terah, probably worshiped at the altar of Sin.
God's sovereign grace called Abraham out of this polluted atmosphere to begin a new line of people, the Hebrews, who were to be separated from idolatry and to become a blessing to all mankind. The archaeological findings of ancient Ur have greatly illuminated the biblical references to the patriarch Abraham and have given a much wider view of the ancient world around 2000 B.C.
Recovered in another significant excavation were hundreds of clay tablets that had been housed in a library located between two pagans temples in Ugarit, modern Ras Shamra in Syria. These tablets date from about the 15th century B.C. They were inscribed in the earliest known alphabet written in wedge-shaped signs. The strange writing was recognized as ancient Canaanite in origin, and it turned out to be religious and cultic (related to worship) in nature. The tablets were inscribed in a dialect closely akin to biblical Hebrew and Phoenician.
So important were the initial discoveries that archaeologist Claude F. Schaeffer continued excavations in the area from 1929 to 1937. Aside from the knowledge gained about the ancient city of Ugarit, the Ras Shamra texts have great literary importance. The translation of the texts showed the important parallels between the Ugaritic and Hebrew literary style and vocabulary. These texts have been invaluable to scholars studying Hebrew poetry and the general literary style and vocabulary of Old Testament Hebrew.
The most important contribution of the religious texts from Ras Shamra consists of the background material they provide for careful study of the pagan religions mention repeatedly in the Old Testament. As a result of archaeological work, an independent witness to the degenerate nature of Canaanite cults is now available. No longer can critics accuse the Old Testament of projecting a bloodthirsty mentality because Joshua ordered that all Canaanites be destroyed. The order was given to purge the immoral worship of the Canaanites from the land.
In the excavations of Lachish, a city in southwestern Palestine, the most astonishing finds consisted of letters imbedded in a layer of burned charcoal and ashes. Written in Hebrew of the ancient Phoenician script, the documents throw additional light on the life and times of the prophet Jeremiah. The letters, called ostraca, were inscribed on pieces of broken pottery. Most of the letters were written by a citizen named Hoshayahu, who was stationed at a military outpost. He sent these letters to Yaosh, evidently a high ranking officer in the garrison at Lachish.
The Babylonians had attacked and partly burned Lachish some ten years earlier during the reign of king Jehoiakim of Judah. These letters were found in the layers of ashes that represent the final destruction of the city. This dates them from 588-587 B.C. when Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon made his final siege of the Hebrew cities of Jerusalem, Lachish and Azekah.
One letter lists names, the majority of which are found in the Old Testament; two letters consist largely of greetings; another letter describes movements of troops and makes an interesting reference to an unnamed prophet and his word of warning. The Lachish Letters give an independent view of conditions in Judah during the last days before the fall of Jerusalem.
The prophet Jeremiah conducted his ministry in these times. His reference to Azekah and Lachish says, `When the king of Babylon's army fought against Jerusalem and all the cities of Judah that were left, against Lachish and Azekah: for only these fortified cities remained of the cities of Judah.' - Jer. 34:7 -
Tell ez-Zakariyeh has been identified as the ancient city of Azekah. It has a strong inner fortress buttresses with eight large towers. The Lachish Letters concern the time just prior to the fall of the city and present the same conditions of turmoil and confusion that are revealed in the Book of Jeremiah. This information is of immense value in explaining historical backgrounds and illuminating Old Testament Sacred Scripture.
The greatest manuscript discovery of modern times began with the uncovering of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947. A young shepherd boy stumbled upon a cave south of Jericho containing numerous leather scrolls of Hebrew and Aramaic writing and some 600 fragmentary inscriptions. Great excitement quickly spread throughout the archaeological world. In 1952, new caves containing fragments of later scrolls in Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic were found enclosed in jars. These startling discoveries have been followed by the uncovering of other manuscripts around the Dead Sea area, particularly at Qumran.
After intensive study, scholars dated the manuscripts from as early as 250 B.C. to as late as A.D. 68. Although attacks have been made against the age and authenticity of the manuscripts, two lines of evidence establish their integrity. Radiocarbon count, a scientific method of dating, places the linen in which the scrolls were wrapped in the general period of 175 B.C. to A.D. 225. Scholars of ancient writing ( paleographers ) date documents by the form of the letters and the method of writing. This line of evidence also places the Dead Sea Scrolls during the period of time about three centuries before A.D. 70.
The scrolls contain ancient texts of parts of the Old Testament and the New Testament periods. The biblical section contains two scrolls of Isaiah, one complete, and fragments of several Old Testament books. Coins found at the site at Qumran reveal that the settlement was founded about 135 B.C. It was abandoned during the Jewish war with the Romans in A.D. 66-73.
The scrolls discovered along the Dead Sea were part of the library of the people who lived at Qumran, possibly the Essenes, a religious group mentioned by ancient writers. The sect was even stricter in its interpretation of the religious laws than the Pharisees of the New Testament. Some scholars believe that John the Baptist may have lived among these people before beginning his work of announcing the ministry of Jesus.
The Essenes expected the coming of a new age, ushered in by a ruler who would serve as a prophet and a priest. Although the finds at Qumran do not relate directly to any events described in the Sacred Scripture/Holy Bible, they throw useful light on the way certain people thought during the period between the Old and New Testament.
A full text of the Book of Isaiah is the best known of the discoveries at Qumran, although other texts discovered are also significant. As a group, the documents make up the oldest existing manuscripts of the Sacred Scripture/Holy Bible in any language. One of the caves yielded 18 scraps of papyri written entirely in Greek. Some have identified them as fragments of the earliest New Testament version yet discovered, claiming that one of them, a fragment of Mark's Gospel, dates from about 15 years after the events recorded. Although this dating is disputed by many, the Dead Sea material in general has had a stabilizing effect upon new Testament criticism.
The thrilling story of biblical archaeology is not completed. Scholars are studying thousands of clay tablets found at Ebla in northern Syria - a task that will require a generation of careful study and analysis. Dialogue between the biblical text and archaeological finds must continue because each can help us understand and interpret the other. The Sacred Scripture/Holy Bible helps us appreciate the archaeologist's discoveries while biblical archaeology helps us understand and interpret the message of God's inspired Word.
In spite of its great contribution to biblical studies, there are certain things that archaeology cannot do. In general, it cannot prove that a particular Scripture/Bible event happened or that a specific person mentioned in the Scripture/Bible actually existed. This is true because of the small amount of evidence archaeology can really recover. Many objects do not survive long enough for a modern archaeologist to discover.
Paper, wood, and clothing will rot away quickly unless they are buried in extremely dry conditions. Also, archaeology discovers only a small portion of the things that do survive. For example, the careful and detailed exploration at Hazor, an ancient city in Israel, between 1956 and 1970 uncovered only a small fraction of the whole mound. It has been estimated that to excavate every area of Hazor's 21 strata would take 800 years or more.
The truth of the Sacred Scripture/Holy Bible is not a matter of facts, but of their interpretation. Even if we could prove the accuracy of the entire Scripture/Bible, its redemptive significance would not be proven. It is because Christian faith is based on historical events, Christians should welcome any supportive evidence that archaeology can provide - but they do not anchor their faith to it.
Neither lack of evidence nor critical skepticism can disprove God's Word. It is better to emphasize how archaeology helps us understand the Sacred Scripture/Holy Bible than to believe that it proves the Scripture/Bible true. It is heartening, however, to note that so far there has been no instance of an archaeological discovery conclusively proving the Sacred Scripture/Holy Bible to be in error.
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Sunday, May 24, 2009
I have through years of reading, pondering, reflecting and contemplating, the 3 things that last; FAITH . HOPE . LOVE and I would like to made available my sharing from the many thinkers, authors, scholars and theologians whose ideas and thoughts I have borrowed. God be with them always. Amen!
I STILL HAVE MANY THINGS TO SAY TO YOU BUT THEY WOULD BE TOO MUCH FOR YOU NOW. BUT WHEN THE SPIRIT OF TRUTH COMES, HE WILL LEAD YOU TO THE COMPLETE TRUTH, SINCE HE WILL NOT BE SPEAKING AS FROM HIMSELF, BUT WILL SAY ONLY WHAT HE HAS LEARNT; AND HE WILL TELL YOU OF THE THINGS TO COME.
HE WILL GLORIFY ME, SINCE ALL HE TELLS YOU WILL BE TAKEN FROM WHAT IS MINE. EVERYTHING THE FATHER HAS IS MINE; THAT IS WHY I SAID: ALL HE TELLS YOU WILL BE TAKEN FROM WHAT IS MINE. - JOHN 16:12-15 -
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